Introduction
The Khavaran Nameh, a religio-epic masnavi composed by Ibn Hussam Khusfi in the 9th/15th century, represents a significant example of text–image interplay in Persian illustrated literature. Inspired by Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and imbued with Shiʿi religious themes, the work poetically recounts the heroic deeds of Imam Ali and his companions. The significance of the Khavaran Nameh extends beyond its literary and doctrinal dimensions to its illustrated manuscripts, in which religious and epic themes are visually articulated through the medium of miniature painting.
This study aims to analyze and compare the text of the Khavaran Nameh with selected miniatures from an illustrated manuscript, examining how epic and religious concepts are visually represented. To this end, three miniatures from the manuscript are analyzed in terms of their narrative content, compositional structure, and correspondence with the verses of the original poem, in order to assess the degree of textual–visual concordance within the manuscript.
A comparative study of text and image in illustrated literary works provides valuable insight into the visual reconstruction of literary themes and the artistic strategies employed by painters. Such an approach highlights the role of miniature painting in conveying meaning and establishing a dynamic dialogue between literature and visual art. Accordingly, this research pursues two objectives: (1) to examine the relationship between text and image in the illustrated Khavaran Nameh manuscript preserved at the Golestan Palace Museum, and (2) to identify the visual strategies through which literary concepts are transformed and represented. It therefore addresses the following research question:
· How is the correspondence between text and image established in the miniatures of this illustrated manuscript?
Method
This fundamental study adopts a descriptive-analytical method with a comparative approach and relies on documentary research for data collection. The research corpus consists of 15 miniatures from the illustrated Khavaran Nameh manuscript, which were qualitatively analyzed and compared. The findings from three selected miniatures are presented in detail in the main text, while the remaining cases are examined and documented in supplementary tables.
Results
An examination of the miniatures in the illustrated Khavaran Nameh reveals that Imam Ali, as the central protagonist of the narrative, constitutes the most significant element shaping the visual structure of the manuscript. In the majority of the paintings, the compositional arrangement, the placement of figures, the directional movement of the narrative, and the symbolic representation of the Imam are carefully orchestrated to guide the viewer’s gaze toward him. This suggests that the illustrator, much like the poet, sought to preserve and visually convey the pre-eminent status of Imam Ali as the principal hero of the narrative. The Imam’s presence throughout most of the miniatures, whether depicting scenes of combat or non-combative gatherings and events, underscores his central role in structuring the visual narrative. Through various pictorial devices, including central positioning, enlarged figural scale, the orientation of other characters’ gazes and gestures, and symbolic markers such as the fiery halo, the painter reinforces the Imam’s authority, prominence, and sanctity. These visual strategies enable the miniatures not only to recount narrative events but also to communicate the spiritual and heroic dimensions of Imam Ali’s character. In contrast, the representation of the forces of evil (the adversaries) in the examined miniatures reveals visual strategies that emphasize the triumph of good, embodied by Imam Ali and his companions, over evil through a narrative and visual opposition. Furthermore, in most of the analyzed scenes, the visual-narrative setting is situated within the battlefield, reinforcing the epic dimension of the work and highlighting the confrontation between opposing forces.
Discussion and Conclusion
Regarding the extent to which the painter adheres to the verses of the Khavaran Nameh, the analysis of the selected miniatures demonstrates that:
Character–text correspondence is achieved to a considerable degree, particularly through the visual representation of the attributes, status, and characteristics of Imam Ali and his companions.
Action–text correspondence is realized most extensively, as the painter visually incorporates the majority of the narrative actions and concepts conveyed in the poem.
Space–text correspondence is also given considerable attention, and, despite the limitations imposed by the conventions and requirements of miniature painting, the settings described in the poem are rendered with a relatively high degree of visual coherence.
Overall, the correspondence between image and text in the examined corpus reveals a strong alignment between visual elements and literary content, demonstrating the painter’s close engagement with the verses of the Khavaran Nameh. The majority of concepts articulated by the poet are visually translated into pictorial form. Nevertheless, the painter exercises creative autonomy in the depiction of scene details, the selection of visual perspectives, and the construction of narrative viewpoints. In conclusion, the findings of this study indicate that the miniatures of the Khavaran Nameh, through the balanced integration of narrative components, supplementary visual elements, and epic motifs, successfully create a coherent visual interpretation of the story. While maintaining a close relationship with the literary source, these paintings also reveal the expressive potential and artistic capabilities of Persian miniature painting