Introduction
The discourse of Karbala in Iran, from the Safavid era onward, has led to the formation of various social institutions as well as material and cultural elements for experiencing Karbala rituals throughout the year (Rahmani, 2023, pp. 66–67). Manifestations of Ashura culture can be observed in Iranian religious art; notably, Qahvehkhaneh paintings of the Qajar period serve as one of the prominent expressions and loci of Shiʿi teachings through Ashura and Karbala symbolism (Pakbaz, 2004, p. 148). During the Qajar period, the continuation of scenes and figures from the events of Ashura, especially in the wall paintings of sacred shrines, tile work, or fabric paintings—was widespread and often employed in the ritual of ritual curtain reading (Elahi, 1998, p. 105). Examples include depictions of Ali-Asghar in the arms of Imam Hussein, the martyrdom of Hazrat Abolfazl, the presence of Zafar Jani, the Alqama river, decapitated bodies, and similar motifs. Due to the significance of Imam Hussein’s uprising and the passage of several centuries since the event, factors such as human fascination with myths and legends, extraordinary occurrences, and the neglect of scribes in examining multiple narratives have likely contributed to exaggerations, distortions, misreadings, or transcription errors entering the sources.
One artifact related to the events of Ashura, notable for its extensive depiction of individuals and incidents, is the Qalamkar curtain preserved in the Hosseiniyeh Kababi of Birjand. This study answers these questions:
ü  Into how many thematic clusters can the aforementioned Qalamkar tapestry be categorized?
ü  How can the Ashura scene be interpreted based on the iconography present on the Hosseiniyeh Kababi Qalamkar?
What are the cultural and religious factors that influenced the development of these specific themes?
 
Research Methodology
The present study employs an analytical and comparative approach to interpret the Qalamkar curtain of the Hosseiniyeh Kababi, which belongs to the Qahvehkhaneh painting tradition. The data collection methods in this study were both library-based and field-based. The selection of comparative samples was purposeful and maximized for diversity to facilitate an understanding of the hidden layers and meanings of the artifact. One of the comparative approaches applied in this research is the lens-based comparison. Given the historical nature of this research method, earlier texts describing past phenomena and historical events can illuminate subsequent occurrences (Piravi Vank, 2016, p. 6). Instead of equating two phenomena, one is used as a tool to understand, evaluate, and critique the other.
To this end, four works with similar themes—created prior to the present artifact, between 1300–1337 AH, and reflecting diverse narrative approaches to Ashura—were selected as visual references to assist in interpreting the Qalamkar curtain. To achieve the research objectives, the first step involved introducing and describing the artifact and analyzing its visual features. The next step entailed comparing the artifact with the four thematically similar samples to trace the evolution of Ashura depictions during the Qajar period. In the third stage, the study identified the commonly used narratives within the depicted scenes, as conveyed by the curtain-maker. Finally, in the fourth stage, the latent meanings of the artifact were interpreted based on its visual elements and motifs.
 
Research Findings
The images on the Qalamkar curtain are narrative-driven, and to distinguish the figures, the names of the righteous (prophets, Imam Hussein, Hazrat Abolfazl, Ali Akbar, Ghasem, Ali Asghar, Zafar Jani, the messenger from Medina and the Darvish of Kabul) and the impure (Umar ibn Saʿd, Shemr, Harmala, Bakr ibn Amar, and Qaren) are inscribed alongside their depictions. In the inscriptions, no historical or religious records were found regarding the two enemy soldiers, Bakr ibn Amar and Qaren. It is likely that the artist either employed imaginative naming for these figures or interpreted the names differently based on phonetic perception.
The visual text is composed of two horizontal sections. The explicit layers of the upper section include discourses such as invitation, rejection of the invitation, supernatural forces, the presence of the Imams, confrontation, and the dialogue between forces of good and evil, whereas the explicit layers of the lower section depict discourses such as battles between forces of good and evil and the triumph of good. Together, these two sections comprise five levels. The first level includes the sky, clouds, angels and jinn. The second level contains visual elements such as the prophets, Imam Hussein, and the battle with the wicked. In the third level, the earth, the soil of Karbala, and plants are depicted. The fourth level narrates the struggle between good and evil, and the fifth level depicts the martyrs of the Ashura event.
The latent layers of the curtain include elements that, upon investigation of ancient sources, historical evidence, and comparison with distortions present in the visual system of the curtain, reveal deeper meanings. For instance, trampling of the martyrs’ bodies by horses, according to historical sources (Ibn A’tham al-Kufi, 1993, p. 93; Baladhuri, 1996, p. 183), was an act committed by the disbelievers; however, in this curtain, the scene is reversed, as all fallen enemies in this image and other studied examples are shown under the horses’ hooves. The martyrs’ bodies in this image, representing Hazrat Abbas and four decapitated figures, are depicted with respect and careful arrangement in the lower right and left corners of the image. On the right, Abbas is shown in the arms of Imam Hussein, while on the left, the other bodies are guarded by a lion, which may symbolize the transfigured visage of Hazrat Ali.
 
Discussion and Conclusion
In this study, the Ashura Qalamkar curtain at the Hosseiniyeh Kababi in Birjand was examined, and twelve distinct scenes and narratives from the events of Ashura were identified. The findings indicate that the work employs limited visual features, such as texture, shading, and finishing, while details of clothing and the anatomy of the figures received less attention. Another notable aspect of the curtain is the creation of depth without the use of perspective, achieved solely through the background’s coloration and the fading of the horizon line. This technique directs the viewer’s focus to the battle and the martyrdom of Hazrat Abbas, emphasizing him through magnification. Accordingly, the work can be interpreted as centered on Hazrat Abbas.
Comparison of this work with ancient sources and other Qahvehkhaneh artworks indicates that the written historical record and oral culture have a significant influence on the selection of character portrayals, roles, and the destinies of actors depicted in the scenes. The accessible texts available to the narrator have shaped a hero-centered and reverential perspective for positive actors and a disparaging perspective for anti-heroes, even if this diverges from historical realities. By comparing the painted narratives with historical religious texts, it was found that the presence of Zafar Jani, Darvish Kaboli, Bakr ibn Amar, Qaren, and the ceremonial lion is not documented in historical sources for that day, although some are mentioned in certain martyrdom narratives. Therefore, the inclusion of these elements likely reflects misreadings by the curtain narrator, influenced by distortions of the Ashura narrative during the Qajar period and the oral culture of the time.
Overall, the theme of the Ashura curtain was shaped by the social, religious, cultural, and artistic conditions of the Qajar period, and its narratives are drawn from both written and oral sources. In the latent layers of the curtain, elements of both truth and distortion are present, reflecting a practice common during the Qajar era. These distortions were likely intended to convey the experience of suffering more effectively to the narrator and to encourage a reverential perception of religious actors, an influence that can be traced to sources such as Rawḍah al-Shuhadā. Based on these observations, this Qalamkar curtain functioned as a media and educational artifact, aimed at communicating Shiʿi concepts