Introduction
With the outbreak of the First World War, Iran declared its neutrality. However, in practice this neutrality was little more than a formality. The warring powers knew well that, given Iran’s many internal problems and the external pressures it faced, such neutrality could not be meaningful. As a result, seeing the weakness of the central government, they ignored Iran’s declaration and moved ahead with their own plans. In these circumstances, the Iranian government could do little more than send notes of protest to the belligerent states; a policy that failed to prevent foreign forces from occupying parts of the country. During this period, British and Russian troops, whose main mission was to establish a defensive line against Germany, exploited the weakness of Iran’s central authority. Because of its strategic position, they brought the northern and southern regions of the province of Qayenat under their control. Therefore, Iran, and, within it, the Amarat-e Qayenat va Sistan, became a stage for the colonial ambitions of the great powers. Qayenat, which had long been an arena of rivalry between Russia and Britain due to its unique strategic location, experienced widespread difficulties and instability in various domains during the war as a result of their policies. In light of this, the present study aims to address what socio-economic consequences the presence of Russian and British troops in the province of Qayenat had for the local population. Accordingly, it examines the regional conditions and the socio-economic outcomes resulting from the presence of these forces in Qayenat during the First World War.
Although numerous studies have addressed the effects of the First World War and the presence of Allied forces in this region, several of which are relevant as background for the present research, previous works typically focus on only one of the dimensions explored here. The distinct contribution of this article lies in its comprehensive and independent examination of the socio-economic consequences of the Russian and British military presence in Qayenat during the First World War.
The primary aim of this study is to examine the socio-economic crises that emerged as a result of the direct presence of Russian and British military forces in the strategically important province of Qayenat, crises that increasingly destabilized the region. Within this broader inquiry, the study also seeks to explore the conditions that facilitated the entry of these forces into the area, the position of the governor of Qayenat, Mohammad Ebrahim Khan ‘Alam, toward their presence, and the activities of German agents in the province.
 Research Method
This study employs a historical method with a descriptive–analytical approach. It draws on library sources, including books, scholarly articles, academic theses and the writings of British consuls and high-ranking military officers. In addition, it makes use of documentary materials such as published document collections, unpublished archival records held at the National Archives and Library of Iran, as well as interviews with prominent scholarly, religious, and cultural figures from the region.
 Findings
The findings indicate that the conduct and activities of the Allied forces during the First World War exposed the province of Qayenat to a range of economic crises, including famine, widespread poverty, shortages and rising prices of foodstuffs, and disruptions to agriculture and livestock production. These economic difficulties, in turn, gave rise to numerous social crises. Among the most significant were the spread of infectious diseases such as cholera, influenza, and smallpox—largely caused by poor sanitary conditions among foreign troops and widespread malnutrition among the local population; large-scale migration of Qayenat residents to nearby cities and neighboring countries, including Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, in search of better living conditions; an increase in marriages between local women and foreign soldiers or opportunistic local chiefs due to the severe financial distress faced by families; the expansion of opium cultivation and consumption within society; and, finally, a sharp rise in insecurity along roads and trade routes as a result of banditry and raids carried out by Turkmen, Baluch, and Afghan outlaws, as well as assaults on local homes by Cossack soldiers.
 Conclusion
During the First World War, the swift and wide-reaching control of Qayenat by Russian and British forces, and their close cooperation in the region, led to growing crises in several areas. These problems were especially serious in the economic and social spheres. Allied control disrupted foreign trade and caused local markets to stagnate, as commercial activity dropped to its lowest levels and Iran’s exports to neighboring countries were put at risk. As the Allied forces expanded and demanded more essential goods, while occupying orchards and farmlands, agriculture in the region came under serious threat. This led to rising prices, food shortages, and, at times, famine. The worsening economic conditions also created social problems. The direct presence of Allied troops in Qayenat caused the spread of infectious diseases, widespread malnutrition, migration of residents, and increased insecurity along roads and trade routes. These problems deeply affected the local population, increased social dissatisfaction, and eventually led to public protests against Shaukat al-Mulk.