Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan

Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan

The Socio-Economic Consequences of the Presence of Russian and British Military Forces in Qayenat during the First World War

Authors
faride bavaryan 1
ahmad asadollahi Gazar 2
1 Assistant Professor of Islamic Revolution History, Department of Islamic Studies, Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies, Ilam University, Ilam, Iran
2 Writer and researcher in the art field of the Islamic Revolution, Tehran, Iran
10.22034/fakh.2025.527711.1739
Abstract
Introduction
With the outbreak of the First World War, Iran declared its neutrality. However, in practice this neutrality was little more than a formality. The warring powers knew well that, given Iran’s many internal problems and the external pressures it faced, such neutrality could not be meaningful. As a result, seeing the weakness of the central government, they ignored Iran’s declaration and moved ahead with their own plans. In these circumstances, the Iranian government could do little more than send notes of protest to the belligerent states; a policy that failed to prevent foreign forces from occupying parts of the country. During this period, British and Russian troops, whose main mission was to establish a defensive line against Germany, exploited the weakness of Iran’s central authority. Because of its strategic position, they brought the northern and southern regions of the province of Qayenat under their control. Therefore, Iran, and, within it, the Amarat-e Qayenat va Sistan, became a stage for the colonial ambitions of the great powers. Qayenat, which had long been an arena of rivalry between Russia and Britain due to its unique strategic location, experienced widespread difficulties and instability in various domains during the war as a result of their policies. In light of this, the present study aims to address what socio-economic consequences the presence of Russian and British troops in the province of Qayenat had for the local population. Accordingly, it examines the regional conditions and the socio-economic outcomes resulting from the presence of these forces in Qayenat during the First World War.
Although numerous studies have addressed the effects of the First World War and the presence of Allied forces in this region, several of which are relevant as background for the present research, previous works typically focus on only one of the dimensions explored here. The distinct contribution of this article lies in its comprehensive and independent examination of the socio-economic consequences of the Russian and British military presence in Qayenat during the First World War.
The primary aim of this study is to examine the socio-economic crises that emerged as a result of the direct presence of Russian and British military forces in the strategically important province of Qayenat, crises that increasingly destabilized the region. Within this broader inquiry, the study also seeks to explore the conditions that facilitated the entry of these forces into the area, the position of the governor of Qayenat, Mohammad Ebrahim Khan ‘Alam, toward their presence, and the activities of German agents in the province.
 Research Method
This study employs a historical method with a descriptive–analytical approach. It draws on library sources, including books, scholarly articles, academic theses and the writings of British consuls and high-ranking military officers. In addition, it makes use of documentary materials such as published document collections, unpublished archival records held at the National Archives and Library of Iran, as well as interviews with prominent scholarly, religious, and cultural figures from the region.
 Findings
The findings indicate that the conduct and activities of the Allied forces during the First World War exposed the province of Qayenat to a range of economic crises, including famine, widespread poverty, shortages and rising prices of foodstuffs, and disruptions to agriculture and livestock production. These economic difficulties, in turn, gave rise to numerous social crises. Among the most significant were the spread of infectious diseases such as cholera, influenza, and smallpox—largely caused by poor sanitary conditions among foreign troops and widespread malnutrition among the local population; large-scale migration of Qayenat residents to nearby cities and neighboring countries, including Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, in search of better living conditions; an increase in marriages between local women and foreign soldiers or opportunistic local chiefs due to the severe financial distress faced by families; the expansion of opium cultivation and consumption within society; and, finally, a sharp rise in insecurity along roads and trade routes as a result of banditry and raids carried out by Turkmen, Baluch, and Afghan outlaws, as well as assaults on local homes by Cossack soldiers.
 Conclusion
During the First World War, the swift and wide-reaching control of Qayenat by Russian and British forces, and their close cooperation in the region, led to growing crises in several areas. These problems were especially serious in the economic and social spheres. Allied control disrupted foreign trade and caused local markets to stagnate, as commercial activity dropped to its lowest levels and Iran’s exports to neighboring countries were put at risk. As the Allied forces expanded and demanded more essential goods, while occupying orchards and farmlands, agriculture in the region came under serious threat. This led to rising prices, food shortages, and, at times, famine. The worsening economic conditions also created social problems. The direct presence of Allied troops in Qayenat caused the spread of infectious diseases, widespread malnutrition, migration of residents, and increased insecurity along roads and trade routes. These problems deeply affected the local population, increased social dissatisfaction, and eventually led to public protests against Shaukat al-Mulk.
Keywords
Qayenat Province, First World War, Britain, Russia, Iranian Central Government, Allied Powers

Subjects

Agheli, B. (2001). Chronology of Iran from the Constitutional Revolution to the Islamic Revolution (Vol. 1). Tehran: Goftar. [In Persian]
Ahrar, A. (1973). Tufan in Iran. Tehran: Novin. [In Persian]
Akhavan, S. (2001). Iran and the First World War: Seminar proceedings. Tehran: Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [In Persian]
Aramjou, A. (2010). The Qayenat province during the Qajar period (Unpublished Master’s thesis). University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. [In Persian]
Aramjou, A. (2012). Britain and the Qayenat province: World War I and its consequences. In Proceedings of the Iran and British colonialism conference (Vol. 2). Tehran: Institute for Political and International Studies. [In Persian]
Aramjou, A., & Malekzadeh, E. (2011). Qayenat and the great powers during the Qajar period (1210–1344 AH). Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan, 19(5), 1–25. [In Persian]
Asadollahi Gazar, A. (2015). Britain in Birjand. Tehran: Fekr-e-Bekr. [In Persian]
Bayat, K. (2002). Iran and the First World War. Tehran: National Library and Archives of Iran. [In Persian]
Confidential notes of the British Consulate in Sistan and Qayenat (1917–1919) (M. Fazeli, Trans.). (2013). Tehran: Hirmand. [In Persian]
Confidential reports of the British Consulate in Sistan and Qayenat (1915–1916 & 1921–1923) (M. Rafiei, Trans.). (2017). Tehran: Hirmand. [In Persian]
Confidential reports of the British Consulate in Sistan and Qayenat (1912–1914) (M. Rafiei, Trans.). (2016). Tehran: Hirmand. [In Persian]
Daneshpajouh, M., Sotoudeh, M., Moghrebi, M., & Zaryabkhoei, A. (2005). The culture of Iran (Vol. 12). Tehran: Sokhan. [In Persian]
Dixon, W. A. R. (2013). Eastern Iran: A glimpse of the First World War (M. Rafiei, Trans.). Tehran: Hirmand. [In Persian]
Hill, F. (1999). Letters from Qaenat (M. H. Ganji, Trans.). Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi. [In Persian]
Jaberi, E. (2009). Factors influencing the developments of Qayenat in contemporary Iran (Unpublished master’s thesis), Ferdowsi University of Mashahd, Mashhad, Iran. [In Persian]
Loft, J. P. (2001). Britain’s policy in eastern Iran during the First World War (M. Bahramian, Trans.). Quarterly Journal of Foreign Relations History, 7 & 8(3), 65–116. [In Persian]
Mahboub Farimani, E. (2003). Documents on foreign governments’ presence in eastern Iran. Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi. [In Persian]
Majd, M. Q. (2007). The great famine (M. Karimi, Trans.). Tehran: Institute for Political and International Studies. [In Persian]
Malekzadeh, E. (2013). Documentary account of the famine in eastern Iran during the First World War. Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan, 3(7), 105–122. [In Persian]
Malekzadeh, E., & Hamani, K. (2020). Investigating the causes of social crises in Iran during the First World War: A press-based perspective. Quarterly Journal of War Historical Studies, 1(4), 115–137. [In Persian]
Mansaf, M. A. (1976). Amir Shokat al-Molk Alam. Tehran: Amir Kabir. [In Persian]
Miroshnikov, L. Y. (1965). Iran in the First World War (A. Dokhaniyati, Trans.). Tehran: Farzaneh. [In Persian]
Moberly, J. (1990). Operations in Iran (K. Bayat, Trans.). Tehran: Rasa. [In Persian]
Shahidi, M. (1998). The political life of the Alam family. Tehran: Institute for Contemporary History Studies. [In Persian]
Sherafatimoghadam, E. (2016). Social and economic consequences of the First World War in eastern Iran (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran. [In Persian]
Sykes, P. (1964). History of Iran (F. Daie Gilani, Trans., Vol. 2). Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab. [In Persian]
Yeat, C. E. (1986). Travelogue of Khorasan and Sistan (G. Roshani, Trans.). Tehran: Yazdan. [In Persian]
 
Oral History Interviews in Persian
Ayati, A. H. (2014, September 26). Oral history interview.
Dayani, E. (2017, August 11). Oral history interview.
Raghebi, M. R. (2014, March 23). Oral history interview.
Ganji, M. H. (2012, January 15). Oral history interview.
 
Periodicals / Newspapers in Persian
Habl al-Matin, 26. (1915 AH).
Setareh Iran, 15. (1920 AH).
Shahab Thaqeb, [n.d.]. (Muharram 1914 AH).
Asr-e Jadid, 53. (1915 AH).
Kokab Iran, 5, 8, 9 (1916 AH); 42, 51, 55 (1917 AH).
Nobahar, 217, 219, 220. (1914 SH).
 
Archival Documents
National Library and Archives Organization (NLAO), Archive, Documents:
Document No. 1169/210, Archive Location 4290970 & 2;
Document No. 9640/210;
Document No. 404/240, Retrieval No. 404/1/13, Archive No. 209 A3AA1;
Document No. 2864/290, Retrieval No. 2864/1/12, Archive No. 1AB4R860;
Document No. 01702/290, Archive No. 326 3A A1;
Document No. 14884/240, Retrieval No. 14744/1/13, Archive No. 504 K4A1;
Document No. 564/240, Retrieval No. 564/1/13, Archive No. 214 A4AA1;
Document No. 1411/293, Retrieval No. 293001411, Archive No. 519 Z1B A1;
Document No. 001206/998;
Document No. 996/998.

  • Receive Date 02 June 2025
  • Revise Date 04 October 2025
  • Accept Date 05 October 2025