Introduction
Learning a second language opens a window to new cultures and ideas and has long attracted scholars’ attention in education and second language learning disciplines. Despite the importance of learning a second language, research on the history and evolution of its teaching and learning has largely been limited to European countries. The history of teaching the French language in Iran, particularly in the city of Mashhad, has been overlooked by researchers in the fields of language education and history. The teaching of French in Iran dates back to the Qajar era, yet studies have not addressed its status in Mashhad. Examining the historical evolution of language learning offers insight into past strategies and approaches, as language education has been carried out using various methods and techniques. This study, with a focus on the teaching and instruction of French in Mashhad, employs historical research methods and utilizes various sources, including written documents and press, to answer the following questions:

What factors have influenced the teaching and spread of French in Mashhad?
Since when and how had French been taught in Mashhad?
Who played a role in making French the dominant foreign language in this city?
Who were the most prominent French language teachers in Mashhad, and what was their contribution to this process?

Methodology
This research is conducted using qualitative documentary and historical methods. The study delves into the topics through an in-depth examination of primary and secondary sources. The primary sources of this research include reports from Mashhad newspapers such as Bahar, Nowbahar, Tazehbahar, Shahamat, Azadi, Aftab Shargh, Fekr Azad, Habl al-Matin Khorasan, and Hirmand. Additionally, unpublished documents from the Astan Quds Razavi archive center were utilized.
 
Results and Discussion
The spread of the French language in Mashhad began during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah, when local rulers employed French teachers to educate their children. Notably, Messieurs Ducroix and Cesari were hired for this purpose. Although the impact of this teaching approach was limited to a small number of individuals, it nonetheless paved the way for a broader familiarity with the French language. By the late Qajar period, French was being taught in schools. From the mid-Qajar era, French played an active role in Iran’s cultural landscape, and French gained significant importance in the country’s educational system. The establishment of the Dar ul-Funun, the sending of students to France, the Iranian elite’s interest in French, and government policies all contributed to French maintaining its status in Iran until the end of the first Pahlavi period. The presence of French and Belgian advisors was a key factor in the spread of the language. Belgian involvement, particularly by Monsieur Lelo, played a crucial role in the expansion of French in Mashhad.
As a key language in commercial, administrative, and financial fields, French saw a significant increase in public and private education in Mashhad. One of the earliest initiatives was the French language classes for adults conducted by Michel Petros. Alongside foreign teachers, some Iranians also began offering private instruction. Sheikh Ali Akbar Khorasani established the Free Public Education class, and Alireza Amoozgar organized adult classes for foreign languages. During the Pahlavi era, even women had access to adult education classes, with Talat al-Molouk Daftari’s class being one example. These classes emphasized speaking, writing, and translation skills. Following the arrival of Russian immigrants in Mashhad after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, individuals like Mrs. Antipov and E. Ovnovitch began offering private French language classes. This trend was continued by some educated Iranians, with institutions like Golshan, led by Nasrollah Yaghoubzadeh, and the Khorasan Guide Advertising Institute, managed by Mohammadreza Khorasani, teaching French. Later, schools such as the Novin School, Houshang Shafahi School, and Ziaei School also offered French language instruction. Proficiency in French significantly improved job prospects and employment in the private sector.
With the establishment of modern schools from the late Qajar period, French was incorporated into the curriculum of schools in Mashhad. Teachers such as Monsieur Abdolreza, Monsieur Mohammad Khan, and Jean Natal taught at Rahimiyeh School. From October 1929, the Ministry of Education also hired French teachers. Messieurs Leo and Maraval were employed to teach French at Danesh School and the Astaneh School. Some graduates from France also signed contracts with the Department of Education. From late 1934, the Armenian teacher Gorgian taught French in various high schools across the city. French was the only foreign language taught at Shahreza School, with prominent teachers like Mirza Seyed Ali Khan Nasr, Mirza Hassan Khan Kiani, Seyed Mehdi Khan Nasr, Mirza Ali Akbar Khan Mazini, Abdolali Khan Saberi Shirvani, Mirza Ali Khan Soltani, and Nazarbeikian.
French language education for girls in Mashhad also began during the Pahlavi period, with European and Iranian teachers hired to teach French. Among the first female teachers in Mashhad were Iran Khanum and Touran Khanum Saghafi, daughters of Moghbel al-Saltaneh, who graduated from France. In addition to teaching in girls’ schools, Russian immigrants also taught French in private classes. Prominent female teachers in Mashhad included Aliyeh Sharmini and Juliette Gorgian. By the end of the first Pahlavi period, students were able to deliver speeches and perform plays in French. French was also taught in religious schools like Fazeliyeh Jafari and Navvab. Due to the students’ lack of proficiency, the Department of Education even organized supplementary classes. French language exams were among the subjects with the highest failure rates, reflecting the challenges of teaching a foreign language in religious schools.
 
Conclusion
The teaching of the French language in Mashhad can be divided into three main phases. In the first phase, during the Qajar period, French had not yet become widespread, and private classes were primarily geared towards commercial and touristic purposes for the aristocracy and merchants. Foreign employees played a significant role in the spread of the French language, and by the late Qajar period, private classes were offered by Russian immigrants and press offices to adults. In the second phase, with the establishment of modern schools from the late Qajar period, the teaching of French gained more momentum. With the implementation of a unified educational system in Iran from 1929 onward, French was taught as a foreign language in Mashhad, and teachers of French, Armenian, and Iranian descent were employed.
In the third phase, French became deeply integrated into the educational system of Mashhad, securing a significant place in both girls' and boys’ schools, whether public or religious. Aliyeh Sharmini and Madame Gorgian were among the most prominent French teachers at Shahreza Girls’ High School. French language education also began in religious schools such as Fazeliyeh Jafari and Navvab from 1934. This focus on French language learning sparked an interest in translation, with most translations being done from French. However, after September 1941, with the extensive activities of the Iran-Britain Council and the Iran-America Cultural Relations Association in establishing English language classes in Mashhad, and the shift in the country’s educational language from French to English, the dominant language in Mashhad’s schools also changed to English.