اداره کل فرهنگ و ارشاد اسلامی استان خراسان جنوبی مطالعات فرهنگی اجتماعی خراسان 2676-6116 20 2 2026 01 21 From a Peripheral Town to the Heart of Southern Khorasan: Political Developments and the Rise of Tun as a Regional Center in the Safavid Era از شهری حاشیه‌ای تا قلب جنوب خراسان: تحوّلات سیاسی و عوامل مرکزیت یافتن تون در دوره صفویه 39 71 235218 10.22034/fakh.2025.540109.1755 FA مرتضی دانشیار استادیار گروه تاریخ و تمدن ملل اسلامی ، دانشکده الهیات، دانشگاه فردوسی مشهد، ایران. 0000-0002-0379-2723 Journal Article 2025 08 08 Introduction Tun (present-day Ferdows) is an ancient city in southern Khorasan which, from the Sasanian era until the Safavid period, constituted a peripheral or secondary component of the historical province of Qohestan. The 10th century AH witnessed a fundamental transformation with the rise of the Safavid state and the consequent disintegration of Qohestan’s longstanding administrative structure. Gradually, Tun was elevated from a marginal position to the center of a new regional configuration—a shift reflective of Safavid regional policy and the reorganization of Iran's eastern frontiers against persistent Uzbek threats. This research seeks to explain the process and causes behind this transformation and addresses the following question: How did a city of secondary status within Qohestan evolve into the political, religious, and military axis of southern Khorasan during the Safavid era? By examining the historical trajectory of Tun from the late 9th century AH until the end of the Safavid period, this study analyzes the multifaceted factors driving this change. The central hypothesis posits that Tun's rise resulted from a complex interplay of political, religious, geographical, and security-related determinants. A review of existing scholarship confirms that this specific question has not been systematically addressed. Methodology This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology grounded in critical historiography. Data collection involves a comprehensive analysis of primary historical sources from the Timurid and Safavid periods, including but not limited to The Gardens of Paradise on the Description of the City of Herat, The World-Adorning History of ʿAbbās, The Garden of the Safavids, A Compendium of Histories, The Victorious Conquests, and The Restoration of Kings. These textual sources are critically examined to reconstruct administrative changes, military campaigns, and socio-political dynamics. This textual evidence is systematically integrated with archaeological data and material culture, including architectural remnants, epigraphic evidence (e.g., mosque and Imamzadeh inscriptions), and records from the Iran National Heritage List, to analyze the city's physical development and spatial transformations. The analytical framework employs inductive and comparative techniques. Historical developments are examined across three temporal strata, pre-Safavid, Safavid, and post-Safavid, allowing for a diachronic assessment of continuity and change. The process of Tun's centralization is contextualized within the broader spectrum of Safavid imperial policies, particularly concerning frontier management, religious consolidation, and provincial reorganization. This multi-source, comparative approach facilitates a holistic explanation of how local dynamics intersected with central state strategies to redefine Tun's regional significance. Findings The research shows that the process of Tun’s elevation began in the tenth century, when the Safavid dynasty, by dismantling the long-standing administrative structure of the province of Quhistan, rendered its dependent districts autonomous and reorganized them under the authority of Qizilbash amirs. Concurrently, with the destruction of Tabas and the decline of Qaen, Tun, owing to its intermediary geographical position between Qaen, Gonabad and Tabas, emerged from the second half of the same century as the administrative and military center of these regions. The earliest indications of this transformation appear in the decrees of Shah Ismaʿil Safavi, notably in the abolition of the poll tax imposed on the inhabitants of Tun, seemingly intended to support its Shiʿi community. From a religious perspective, Twelver Shiʿism in Tun had pre-Safavid roots, a factor that prompted particular attention from the Safavid rulers toward this area. Cities that shared doctrinal alignment with the central government benefited from financial and political privileges, and Tun was among them. In Safavid sources, Tun is referred to as Dār al-Muʾminīn, a title that signifies its official recognition and religious sanctity within the provincial structure of the Safavid state. During the reign of Shah Tahmasp, the city’s identity was strengthened through the restoration of the central fortress and the expansion of Shiʿi rituals in religious sites such as the Kushk Mosque and the city’s Imamzadeh. However, the principal role in consolidating this centrality was played by powerful local governors. Sulayman Khalifa Turkmen of the Mawsillu clan, who ruled over Tun and Tabas in the final decades of the tenth century, transformed Tun into a military and political stronghold by stabilizing regional security and expanding the city’s fortress. After him, Mihrab Khan Qajar and subsequently Malik Mahmud Sistani, through their local authority, sustained this status until the final years of the Safavid period. The presence of Shah ʿAbbas the Great on his campaign route to Qandahar, as well as the residence of the royal family in Tun in 1031 AH, further attests to the city’s prominence. From a geographical and strategic standpoint, Tun, beyond its intermediary location between Qaen, Gonabad, and Tabas, lay at the intersection of the Yazd–Tabas–Khorasan and Kerman–Khorasan routes, thereby serving as a mediating link between eastern and southern Iran. This position was of vital importance both in confronting Uzbek incursions from the northeast and in controlling caravan routes leading to the central provinces of Iran. The city’s great fortress, which according to MacGregor in the nineteenth century was formidable and imposing, functioned during the Safavid era as a defensive bulwark of southern Khorasan. In the final phase of the Safavid period, Malik Mahmud Sistani, the last governor of Tun, was able, by relying on strong military fortifications and his tribal alliances, to maintain regional security against raids by Baluch and Afghan groups and to expand his domain as far as Qaen and Tabas. Although his rebellion against Shah Sultan Husayn and the subsequent collapse of the Safavid state ultimately led to the decline of this centrality, Tun’s role in the organization and administration of southern Khorasan throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries is undeniable. Following the destruction of the city by Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1167 AH, regional centrality shifted to Tabas; nevertheless, the surviving remains and the accounts of Qajar-era travelers describing the extensive fortifications and buildings of Tun testify to its lost splendor in the Safavid period. Safavid-era architectural remains in Tun (present-day Ferdows) and its dependencies, such as Boshruyeh and Sarayan, including madrasas, bathhouses, bazaars, and cisterns, bear witness to the city’s prosperity from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. Discussion and Conclusion Accordingly, the transformation of Tun from a peripheral town into the political–military center of southern Khorasan during the Safavid period was neither accidental nor the result of a single factor; rather, it was the product of a multilayered combination of political, religious, geographical, and security-related factors. Although Tun’s centrality persisted into the Afsharid period, it gradually diminished in the wake of political and military developments in eastern Iran under that dynasty, most notably the rise of Mashhad to the north of Tun and the emergence of the newly prominent Alam and Zanguie families in Qaen and Tabas, which eroded Tun’s strategic advantage and central position in southern Khorasan. فردوس (تون تاریخی) شهری کهن در جنوب خراسان است که در دوره‌ی صفویه (حک. 907- 1135ق) تغییراتی چشمگیر را تجربه کرد. این شهر از حدود نیمه‌ی دوم سده‌ی دهم به مرکز جنوب خراسان (شامل قائنات، طبس، جنابد/گناباد و تون) مبدل شد و این جایگاه را تا پایان این سلسله حفظ کرد. ارتقای این شهر پیرامونی به جایگاه مرکزیت سیاسی و نظامی جنوب خراسان در دوره‌ی صفویه و زمینه و علل آن مسئله‌ای مغفول‌مانده در پژوهش‌های تاریخی ایران است. این مقاله، با روش توصیفی-تحلیلی و تکیه بر منابع تاریخی و شواهد باستان‌شناسی، نخست روند تبدیل تون از جایگاهی حاشیه‌ای به موقعیتی محوری در جنوب خراسان را آشکار می‌کند و سپس زمینه و عوامل ارتقای آن را مورد تحلیل قرار می‌دهد. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که این تحول نه‌تنها نتیجه‌ی تغییر در ساختار خاور ایران و فروپاشی ایالت قهستان تحت سیاست دولت تازه‌تأسیس صفویه است بلکه حاصل ترکیبی از ملاحظات مذهبی (تشیع ساکنان تون پیش از رسمیت یافتن آن)، جغرافیایی (جای داشتن در میانه جنوب خراسان و در مسیر مواصلاتی خراسان با ایالات جنوبی کشور)، امنیتی (دارای دژی مستحکم در برابر تاخت و تاز مکرر ازبکان) و سیاسی (برآمدن حاکمانی شاخص همچون سلیمان خلیفه ترکمان و ملک ‌محمود سیستانی) بوده است. با این وصف، مرکزیت تون/ فردوس در دوره‌ی صفوی را نمیتوان پدیده‌ای تصادفی و بر پایه‌ی عاملی یگانه دانست؛ این امر حاصل امتیازاتی چندلایه و فرایندی هدفمند در راستای اقتضائات حکومت صفویان بوده است.

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